在 River Trent 边上转了一圈
September 4th, 2008因为要到曾经的一流球队 Nottingham Forest Football Club 的主场去开一个有关学生参与社区活动的会,所以坐车到市中心后步行前往,发现球场周围风景还不错。
River Trent 目前的功能似乎就是航运和休闲旅游。Trent Bridge 附近的河岸是经过加固和硬化的,但河底似乎没有。作为一条流经多个城市的河,水质看起来相当不错。
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But change is Nature…
因为要到曾经的一流球队 Nottingham Forest Football Club 的主场去开一个有关学生参与社区活动的会,所以坐车到市中心后步行前往,发现球场周围风景还不错。
River Trent 目前的功能似乎就是航运和休闲旅游。Trent Bridge 附近的河岸是经过加固和硬化的,但河底似乎没有。作为一条流经多个城市的河,水质看起来相当不错。
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Holling (1973) 1 这样定义生态系统的 resilience:系统在发生重构和功能变化之前能够接受的最大扰动。而 Pimm (1984) 2 在十年之后才提出 resilience 的另一个定义:系统受到扰动后回到初始状态所需的时间。虽然 Pimm 的定义提出较晚,但却得到了广泛得多的应用。而对于 Holling 的定义,虽然研究者往往会提及,却很少有人将其应用到实际研究中,以致到现在这个概念的研究者和实践者似乎已经成了一个不为人注意的学派。为什么 Holling 的想法应者如此寥寥?
Resilience and the Behavior of Large-Scale Systems(以下 RBLSS)这本书可以看作是这个久被忽视的学派争取学界注意的又一次努力,书中文章的主要作者包括 L. H. Gunderson,C. S. Holling,G. D. Peterson,B. H. Walker,S. R. Carpenter 和 D. Ludwig 等人,事实上他们就是仅有的几位我们通过一般的期刊搜索能比较容易地找到的,主张利用 Holling 的 resilience 定义研究社会-生态复合系统的学者。在书中他们重申了自己的想法,即 Pimm 的 resilience 的前提是不成立的,复杂系统并没有一个唯一、恒定、稳固的均衡(equilibrium)状态,相反系统可能有多个均衡状态,外力可以导致系统在这些状态间转换。在一个均衡状态附近(称为均衡域或吸引域),系统的变化是连续而接近线性的,可以用方程描述,但一旦变化超过了一定范围,系统的转变就是突然、非线性的。定义或者评价一个系统的 resilience,就是要找出均衡域的范围和其它可能的均衡状态。
这样的说法比较抽象,所以 Holling 的追随者们使用盆中的小球这个概念来说明:小球相当于系统,放在一个盆(均衡域)当中,盆的宽度就是 resilience 的强弱程度,而小球一旦越出盆沿,就会落入另一个盆,即一个性质、结构、功能都可能完全不同的系统状态。在数学上,他们则利用 二分点这个概念来说明系统是如何离开均衡域的:类似我们熟悉的量变引起质变的思想,系统某些变量的取值会使类似下面方程的性质在这个取值附近发生巨大的改变:

这类变量称为系统中的“慢变量”,变化往往较慢,却对系统的性质和功能有根本性的影响。到这里我们已经可以看到 Holling 的定义固然比 Pimm 的定义更能把握生态系统的非均衡本质,同时也避免了过度的还原论思想,但其实践比起 Pimm 的仅仅通过经验性的观察就可以测量的方法要困难许多,要求研究者对于系统的全面性质和各种内外影响因素都有较全面的了解,这在大的生态和社会经济系统中是难以做到的,难怪许多人望而却步。
也许正是因为这一点,RBLSS 这本脱胎于 workshop 的书将重点放在对大型系统的具体案例研究上。其研究的系统包括了主要的陆地生态系统如森林、湿地和草原,以及水生生态系统如湖泊和珊瑚礁群,研究方法也是多种多样,包括情境分析,数学建模,实地观测和地理信息科学等等。这些案例确实体现了 resilience 这个概念的普适性,但也暴露了它的一个重大不足,就是对于不同的生态系统缺乏一个一致的方法体系。即使在同类的生态系统中,由于物种和扰动因素的不同,研究者也往往不能套用书中给出的分析结果,而要自己从概念模型开始分析。在整个体系中缺乏“可重用”的部分,无疑也限制了这一概念像环境影响评价那样成为工业和学界中通行的做法。
当然,仅从框架来说,这本书也提供了一个可供套用的模式,包括概念模型的建立,跨比例过程和慢变量的识别等等,可供有意利用这个概念进行研究的人参考。但我认为这本书更大的意义在于指出了一条有可能让生态学研究从目前的还原主义研究方法飞跃到真正综合性的,把“人”这一因素纳入研究范围的研究的途径,向传统的研究方法提出了挑战。同时,相对于基于 Pimm 概念的,以某一特定状态为目标、要求保持和固守的环境管理,Holling 的 resilience 概念使得他能够提出新的生态/环境管理思想,即适应性的管理,承认生态和社会系统的变化和非均衡性,这比 resilience 这个概念本身有更大的实践意义,已经在一些具体的环境管理方案中得到应用。在 resilience 的评估当中,又要求研究者对现有的生态模型进行检验,并研究和归纳具体生态系统当中的各种主体和相互作用,这在一定程度上也促进了传统生态学理论和方法论的发展。从这个意义上说,这本书和 resilience 概念本身,对于生态和环境科学的研究者来说具有超越直接价值的意义。
摘要:讨论空间统计的元素和面临的困难以及可能的发展方向。
When I consider the organisation of my thesis I want to boast that my study has used free software GIS — Grass GIS as well as free statistics software package/language R to achieve spatial statistics capacity where even many commercial software packages are handicapped, as the two champions in the free software world can cooperate almost seamlessly, processing map and data back and forth and providing convicing statistics on a map. However after a second thought I realised that “statistics on a map” is not the equivalent of “spatial statistics”.
Although Geographic Information Systems were designed and built with statistics in mind, geographical data in its early days only were included as a context for other data such as census or measurement. From an early GIS-generated map we can obtain information such as the total number of cars in UK and their distribution in various cities whose population is larger than x. This is of course useful information but is insufficient now that people have more demands on geographical data itself, partly thanks to Google Maps/Earth and all those mash-up applications. Therefore the statistics ability of GIS needs to be enhanced, allowing it to be able to process geographical data both as an explanatory variable and a dependent variable, instead of just as a context.
By geographical data I mean the following attributes:
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This is, of course, just a non-exhaustive list. At present most GIS can only process a few of these attributes at a not very satistying level. To enhance the ability of GIS, there are some hurdles that have to be overcome first. The biggest one may be the problem of describing. The nature of GIS and its supporting technology determine that GIS use mathematic-based, reductionist approaches to store and express data in a discrete way, however geography is continuous, with some concepts that are difficult to quantify. How do we state “the habitat is located around the intersection of a footpath and a main highway bridge near Baxton, with a thinner canopy in the northern part providing more favourable conditions for lower storey plants” to a computer? A promising direction of development seems lies in semantics and cognition science.
Another problem is the model used. In geography everything is linked, then how does one represent such link with mathematical models? Besides, statistics in its traditional sense is the aggregation of measurements, which can bring unexpected results in geographical studies. This is especially a prominent problem if social processes are involved. At least, the simple aggregation based on descriptive statistics will have a more limited role. New techniques such as fractal mathematics and trend analysis may have more contribution to the solution to the problem in the future.
The more developed spatial statistics perhaps also will put a demand on more sophisticated spatial data, although the improvement of methodology can alleviate such demand. When statisticians and geographers look at more subtle aspects of natural and social interactions going on on the ground, they will need more data such as the heteogeneity within a “patch” and individual behaviour. In return GIS fed on these data may provide some insights in design of public spaces, priority of conservation, and so on.
I decide to wait and try to contribute to the (r)evolution of new spatial statistics. Before that takes place my thesis will be “using GIS technology and simple statistics with a spatial concern”.
Many of the ideas in this entry comes from or are inspired by this slide by Michael F.Goodchild in University of California, Santa Barbara.
When I conduct
DFA on my NDVI data, I found some interesting behaviour of the result. Apparently the system behaves differently in different spatial scales, which is reflected in the fluctuation-temporal scale correlation and the slope of
(i.e.
).
The DFA result for the whole map is like the picture below,
is between 0.5 and 1, indicating a correlation between fluctuation and time. But the pixel results are seemingly random (this is expected), and all have
(this is quite unexpected), indicating anti-correlations.


After examined the scripts and data in question I believe the design of the experiment has no fault that I could find. I have also considered the possibility that
nonstationarity and trend may have effects on the result, but the NDVI data I used have already had seasonal trend eliminated, while nonstationarity is not likely to cause such dramatic change in
. The result, if not a technical failure, will suggest that the system’s behaviour at 8km (single pixel) and regional scales are different. At the fine-grained scale, the fluctuation reduces as temporal scale increases, i.e. a fluctuation is likely to cause smaller and smaller fluctuations in the distant future. But at coarser scale the behaviour is inversed, a fluctuation may cause larger and larger fluctuations at long intervals.
It is possible that the system’s behaviour at coarser scales is the result of relatively simpler interactions at finer scales, creating a phenomenon known as emergence. But the question is, if it is really emergence, what is the critical scale that such behaviour shift takes place. Besides, what I have now is at best correlation, are there any intrinsic mechanism that determine such emergence? In ecology, has there been similar emergence taking place in the shift from community to biome scale?
The system I’m studying is a pastoral socio-ecosystem. If there is really emergence like this, does it suggest that the system at the farm scale is resilient but as a whole is not 1? This is a really intriguing question. I just hope it is not raised from a false observation.
Allen, C.R., Gunderson, L. & Johnson, A.R., 2005. The Use of Discontinuities and Functional Groups to Assess Relative Resilience in Complex Systems. Ecosystems, 8(8), 958-966. and
Folke, C., 2006. Resilience: The emergence of a perspective for social-ecological systems analyses. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 253-267. ↩
We often have to deal with NDVI time series like this. What does it tell on earth? Very little information can be identified from this figure and its subsets. However, techniques like DFA allow us to dig some information on the fluctuation and its cause.
Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (DFA) was first used in DNA analysis to identify whether the purine and pyrimidine base’s distubution is scalable, or fractal. Later it has been used by many to examine whether a bounded time series has fractal characteristics and is self-similar. First of all the time series has to be converted to a random walk series using equation:

Where
is a value within the range of the time series, or a variable that changes with the element in the time series according to certain rule. This is the “detrending” step. Once the series has been converted, one can split the whole series into a number of non-overlapping “windows”, each with a equal number of samples or length
.
Least Square fit is done to each of the windows to get the local trend. The root-mean-squared deviation from the trend is called fluctuation:
![F(L) = \[\frac{1}{L}\sum_{i=1}^{L}(X_{i} - ai -b)^{2}\]^{\frac{1}{2}}](http://www.snakehsu.info/wordpress/wp-content/cache/tex_5c127464ba1a77a6a3e28babf7ff02ce.gif)
For different window size
we can obtain different
. On a log
vs. log
plot, we have a straight line whose slope is
if the random walk has self-affinity. The values of
have different meanings.
indicates that the fluctuation is correlated with time; while
close to 0.5 indicates white noise 1.
This technique is further used to identify whether there is identifiable trend in the variation of NDVI throughout years. Telesca et al. (2005) 2 has utilised the technique and identified positive feedbacks and reduced adaptability in Italian forest ecosystem. Note that NDVI has natural periodic fluctuation due to seasonality, before DFA is applied, one should first reduce this fluctuation from the data.
This technique may also be applied in my study as I am also looking at NDVI trends. Some spatial analysis may be added by using the technique on single pixels and/or “windows”.
“我们不只是为了奥运而去改善空气质量,而且是为了提高整个中国民众的生活质量去做。”
──复旦大学国际问题研究院常务副院长沈丁立
这句话我非常赞同。历届现代奥运会的主办城市,都会将奥运会作为促进城市发展的一个契机。大多数情况下,奥运会也确实促成了城市在某方面的发展。但如果奥运会带来的只是城市的扩张,像1908年的伦敦奥运和1968年的墨西哥城奥运那样,一是对北京这样一个已经十分巨大的城市并无必要,二是这样的单纯扩张也被在后来证明并不利于城市的协调发展。奥运会离开北京以后,如果能留下什么,除了心态更加国际化的市民,更加发达的基础设施,最好还能带来北京市乃至全国百姓生活品质的真正提高。环境质量的改善,是生活品质提高的一个必要环节。
最近许多境外媒体表达了 对北京空气质量的忧虑。我自己前些日子也在北京,个人感觉是跑步都不想跑。我缺乏在闷热潮湿的地方生活的经验,近几年也没有比较北京夏季和其它时候天气的机会,所以不好断定这些天北京灰蒙蒙的空气到底有几分是因为颗粒物,有几分是因为天气的影响。但是即使是天气的缘故,我们也应当正视这样的空气不论是观感还是体感都并不理想的现实,而且应当认识到污染还需要有力的控制。所以,像沈丁立所说,我们的目光不仅仅要看到奥运会和残奥会这两个月,还要争取今后空气质量的持续改善。
2007年8月单双号限行测试时我也在北京过暑假,当时觉得效果是明显的,今年似乎就没有那么明显(据联合早报,2008年7月24-26日的空气污染指数分别是113,110,115)。北京市环保局的解释是“ 没有明显的对流天气和强降雨,不利于污染物的扩散”。这也从一个侧面说明单双号也好,关闭首钢的炉子也好,并不能作为在长期中解决空气污染问题的手段。作为一个被燕山和太行山脉环抱的大城市,北京的地形与智利的圣地亚哥相似,都要在很大程度上依赖强对流天气实现污染物的扩散。而北京目前的发展趋势,可能会使这种依赖进一步加强,同时减弱对流天气形成的驱动力。
在实行单双号限行的同时,北京却缺少对汽车数量的严格控制。从 07年5月到 08年3月,汽车的增加量约为20万辆,平均每天增加700多辆。数量众多的汽车除了带来大量的排放,还造成了道路和停车场资源的紧缺。为了满足车辆的需要,大量修建新道路和停车场,又使得绿化覆盖率,特别是树木的覆盖率严重降低,这一方面在白天带来了显著的 热岛效应使得空气湿度增大,污染物难以扩散,另一方面在晚间大热容的地面又容易加热空气使其上升成为逆温层,继续阻碍污染物的扩散。所以,单双号的作用有限,固然与天气有关,这天气的形成,却不能说与人为因素没有一点关系。
在奥运之后,怎样实现长期的空气质量提高呢?公共交通的发展能解决部分问题。可以预见的是公共交通将会因为奥运变得更加便利,但从我几天前的体验看,公共交通还有很多不方便的地方。以从清华大学到王府井外文书店为例,首先要坐校园公交到主楼门口,然后需要步行约1.5公里才能到轻轨车站,再转两次地铁到王府井车站,此后又要在宽敞无比却没有一丝荫凉没有一条长椅的步行街上走约0.8公里才能到外文书店,原路返回之后人基本哪儿也不想去了。如果挤公共汽车,在夏天更是难熬。所以为什么在道路已经拥挤不堪的同时,北京许多没有车的人还在想法买车,就不难理解了。如果这个便利性的问题不解决,公共交通的发展不会很大,何况还有地铁公交本身容量的问题。而公共交通不方便根本的原因,还在于北京的道路和建筑本身对公共交通很不友好。道路上公交站台的设计是大部分线路很长(由于城市本身规模和道路长度的原因),站台相距很远,而一站上许多线路都挤在一块儿,典型的就是清华西门和中关村海龙大厦,结果造成这些路段无论公交还是私车都拥堵在一起行驶非常缓慢;建筑方面,北京的二环外的大量建筑都追求外表的宏大壮丽,结果本来不应该太大的街区被这些建筑和附属于它们的停车场、广场撑得过于庞大,更要命的是这些建筑往往又是功能重复的挤在一起扎堆,比如若干个写字楼、若干个购物中心整整齐齐横在马路一边,这也使得公交之间的换乘极为不便。私家车虽然还有找车位的问题,但比起要走以公里计的道路才能找到一个车站还是省力多了。
所以北京的空气质量问题在一定程度上是一个城市规划问题。解决的方法,除了单双号这种治标的手段,我想更重要的是引导公众少买私家车,同时通过增设支线公交/轻轨线路,分散站台等手段使公共交通更加便利,用天台花园、城市公园、行道树等手段增加绿地面积,同时在新的规划和建设中减少大型建筑、广场的数量,改为小型建筑组成的功能多元化的社区。这样也许有望减少大量机动车带来的一部分空气污染问题。
水木上转载的环境保护部消息:
……一是主要污染物排放量首次出现“拐点”。积极推进工程减排和结构减排,认真落实管理减排措施,全国装备脱硫设施的燃煤机组占全部火电机组的比例由2005年的12%提高到48%,城镇污水处理率由52%提高到60%,全年全国化学需氧量排放量1383.3万吨,比2006年下降3.14%;二氧化硫排放量2468.1万吨,比2006年下降4.66%,主要污染物排放量实现双下降,首次出现了“拐点”。
污染物排放量下降本来是好事,不过使用“拐点”这个概念有点叫人犯嘀咕。我记得进入新世纪以来我国环境保护的宣传口径一向是不走发达国家先污染后治理的路子,但是将下降称为拐点无疑是向世界承认,我国的二氧化硫和 COD 排放在过去一直是随着经济的高速发展而增长的,直到去年才随着经济水平的提高和技术的进步实现了污染排放的降低。这也就等于向世界承认,尽管我们不明说,经济和环境的发展还是按着 Kuznets 曲线走的。
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Kuznets 曲线最早被用来描述随着经济的发展,收入分配的不平等会首先加剧,然后在某一个点开始减少,如图所示。后来有人提出了环境 Kuznets 曲线,用来解释发达国家最初以环境为代价换取发展,然后以新技术为契机,雄厚的经济实力为资本,开始在发展经济的同时减少环境破坏这一现象。英国可能是个最明显的例子。工业革命时期的泰晤士河臭不可闻,现在的泰晤士河偶尔还会有鲸不明就里地闯进河道;伦敦也早已摘去了煤烟尘带来的“雾都”帽子。由于这个说法只是对经验的不完全归纳,很多人并不赞同把它作为对环境史的可靠描述。他们指出如果考虑某些环境资本的不可替代性,实际上环境破坏始终是增加的。现在看来即使今后的环境指标继续好转,中国还是在按着这个先污染后治理的模式发展。
考虑到经济发展所需的基础设施往往要消耗不可再生或很难再生的自然资源,是不是可以说 Kuznets 曲线至少前半段是不可避免的呢?这个问题也许取决于我们如何定义研究的范围和计算自然资本。如果假设对土地等自然资源的占用和消耗可以用其他产品的价值弥补,同时选定一个新开发的地区作为研究对象,其所需技术和物资的成本大部分都“外部化”,那么环境资本的减少可以实现为0或负值,但是条件稍微改变,这个说法就不再成立了。至少以人类目前的技术水平,这个曲线的前半段还是一个全局有效的对经济发展和环境质量关系的描述。
至于中国能否实现 Kuznets 曲线的后半段,即使放下环境资本的不同计算方法不谈,也并不是一幅乐观的图景。首先,如果中国要在达到英美的经济水平的同时才实现同等的环境质量,地球现有的资源可能是不够用的。而在气候变化将要或者已经通过一个临界点的现在,无疑是又增加了一个限制因素,而中国在碳汇市场上很可能还要长期处于买方的地位。而且英美的环境成本也有相当一部分是外部化的。中国外部化环境成本的努力,由于其规模往往很大和不可持续,也容易遭到别国的 指责。
而像一些水体几乎不可逆的污染还有物种的灭绝这样的损失,是否可以通过经济和其他环境指标的改善来弥补,也是环境科学家和经济学家永远争吵不休的问题。
“不走西方国家先污染后治理的路子”这个提法可能是容易让人误解的。宏观上,随着经济发展环境资本的减少不可避免,环境保护的目的还是在于让“拐点”来得早一些,低一些,并允许我们以可持续的方式从这个点上走下来。
租了几个片子来看,《暴力史》估计很好看,碟片已经划花放不出来,所以改看了记录片 The War on Democracy。片子讨论的是美国在过去近60年中对其“后院”拉丁美洲的持续不断的干涉,以及中情局等部门为扶植符合美国利益的代言人采用的种种手段,并展示了美国扶植下的政府给当地人,特别是本地民族造成的深重灾难。影片中反复被提到的词是 empire 和 imperialism,比较符合美国一贯的国际形象。 Britannica Online 对 Imperialism 的定义是
state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas. Because it always involves the use of power, whether military force or some subtler form, imperialism has often been considered morally reprehensible and the term is frequently employed in international propaganda to denounce and discredit an opponent’s foreign policy.
从定义上看,如果片子里的记叙属实,这个词的使用在这里还是比较准确的。影片似乎暗示美国的拉美政策是在二战后美苏争霸的格局中定型的,其根本要求是拉美国家的政策必须符合美国的利益,至于是否民主并不重要。于是美国暗地里支持政变、暗杀、搞臭不顺眼的民选领导人也就顺理成章了。这一点逻辑关系是可以理解的,不过将拉美国家的贫富分化和土著民族的地位低下归因于民选政府被颠覆或者富人偏向美国,这条因果链似乎并不特别明显和有说服力。虽然委内瑞拉将石油企业收归国有可能比私有更有利于石油利益的公平分配,但这个模式并非能复制到拉美其他国家,拉美国家的经济问题也并非全然起因于私有化和非民主的制度。当然美国在拉美的“非和平”演变策略仍然是可以引以为戒的。
片子的导演是名记者出身,所以影片在背景资料研究和访谈方面明显强于 Loose Change 这样的阴谋论纪录片,不过他也犯了与那一类片子同样的错误,即用力过猛同时又完全对自己的立场不加掩饰。从讲解时明显的揶揄腔调,到对“反派”被采访者的特写和变形处理,再到引导式的提问,都让人感觉编导非常的有选择性。这样一来,虽然影片的资料本身很有说服力,也让观众不得不怀疑导演究竟是为了揭露真相还是就为了炮轰美国政府。还有一个缺点,豆瓣上的 评论也提到了,就是影片似乎把 Chavez 塑造成了一个高大全的主角。虽然查总统很有个人魅力不假,为贫民窟里的穷人做了一些好事不假,但是对于他暂时扩大总统权力的做法抱着完全信任的态度而没有一点批评,实在是太像粉丝的行为了。
虽然这个纪录片很容易看得人心潮澎湃,也很有教育意义,但过度的表达显然损害了影片表达观点的完整。事实和真正的洞见上,揭去了帝国主义的遮掩,却又蒙上了非理性的迷雾。
As the fuel price soars, it seems difficult to achieve the transition to more sustainable and renewable energy supplies without using biofuel for at least a portion of our fuel consumption. While we have a range of technically possible biofuel solutions, they are all more or less unsustainable, some are even wasteful and/or dangerous. In my opinion, the biofuel alternative that is practical should at least have a few characteristics:
First and most importantly, the energy invested in the whole life cycle of such biofuel should not exceed what human can extract from it. This seems natural yet many alternatives reported in the past year failed to meet this criterion. Some appear to have higher output than their fossil counterparts but the actual result is opposite if one count the energy cost of collection, extraction and transportation in.
The second and equally important characteristic is that the raw material had better be a byproduct, or at least the growth of the raw material does not reduce land availability for food production. The rapid adoption of biofuel crops in some countries may have contributed to rapidly increasing food prices worldwide.
The effort to increase unit productivity of biofuel crops should be responsible and do not cause ecological problems. It is worried that some biofuel species may be invasive, rendering the food production problem more serious. Biofuel based on algae without effective control may be a problem for the marine ecosystems. It is also possible that economic incentives urge people to transform previous landuses to new ones that are not so sustainable, or destroy key habitats.
And pollution, though an old problem already, should not be enhanced by biofuel production. Many kinds of biofuel boast less pollution in combustion compared to fossil fuels, but pollution in production and exhausts still need attention and auditing.
At present there is few biofuel that meets all these criteria, and that’s why I am against mass adoption of them. For transitional energy alternatives, nuclear may be a better choice.
日前,欧盟委员会(European Commission)提出方案,要对其 Common Agriculture Policy (CAP)进行修订,目的在于 使农业生产更贴近市场需求,同时 缓解食品供应的紧张状况。修订方案的主要内容包括如下几条:
CAP 可能是欧盟内最大和最富争议的财政项目,用于 CAP 项目的资金每年超过400亿欧元。CAP 最初是欧洲为了解决战后粮食短缺的问题,用补贴鼓励粮食生产而设立,而且卓有成效:欧洲出现了粮食富余,欧洲人可以用较低的价格购买食品。在2004年为了解决粮食过剩的问题,CAP 开始引入休耕补贴等制度。2005年我在英国的 Peak District 就见过一位幸福的农民,他只要管理好自己土地上的野生石楠就可以拿到足以养活一家人的补贴,根本不需要他把自己的羊卖掉。但是无论在2004年改革前后,高额的津贴实际上都扭曲了市场,使欧洲的农产品可以按低于实际成本的价格在世界市场上出售,这大大伤害了世界其他地方的,特别是发展中国家的农民。而2004年后的政策也没有鼓励欧盟内部的粮食生产。最近由于美国等国家对生物燃料的补贴更加剧了粮食市场的供不应求状况,才使问题暴露出来。
对上涨的粮食价格表示了 深切忧虑的《经济学人》杂志在本月1日就提出现在是 减少 CAP 补贴的好机会。在现在的市场条件下,减少的补贴反而给欧盟的农民提供了利益的刺激,同时世界其他地方也更有动力生产和出口农产品。即使像有些人认为的那样价格只是市场被扭曲的结果而不是纯粹的供应问题,改革后的 CAP 政策也更能反应市场实际的供需状况。但在美国等国家继续补贴生物燃料的情况下,CAP 补贴率降低对于欧盟外的农民提供了多少增加粮食生产的动力呢?在《经济学人》网站上有人评论说
Only yesterday we complained about mountains of butter, cereals and lakes of wine in the EU that went to waste. As an orange producer, I can assure you that I still receive cents for a kilo and have not seen any benefit of the rally in OJ futures. The price in the stores is many times what I receive. There is a disconnect between what the producer gets and what the consumer pays. This can not be explained by transportation costs or the retailer’s mark up.
如果他的观察足够有代表性的话,也许还是有更多的人会转向生物燃料而不是粮食生产。当然也有这种可能性:他能卖出的橙子价格受到了欧洲便宜替代品的冲击,而商店里的橙汁价格是橙汁生产商对较高的需求的反应,或者这样说,一方面橙汁生产商不愿意提高价格从欧洲以外的供应者那里收购橙子,一方面橙子生产商转向其他生产继续导致供给不足
,还是应该 blame CAP。不论是哪种情况,欧盟对于 CAP 的新提案应该是朝降低食品价格的方向走了正确的一步,但其广泛的效果可能还要经过一番国际贸易博弈才能看到。
新 CAP 相比2004年至今的政策可能有一个副作用,就是农民保护生物多样性和某些生态系统的积极性会降低。像我上文提到的农民,他的羊群规模在取消补贴后可能不足以给他与原来相当的收入,因此他可能会搬迁到别处或者索性放弃农业生产,从而放弃对 Peak District 一部分石楠草地的管理。还有一些濒危的鸟类一直是依赖农业生态系统而存在的,但增加粮食生产必然要求农业的集中化和高强度,包括休耕制度的取消,这都是对它们的生存不利的。不知道 ecocentricists 们这次面对关系人类性命的粮食问题会不会继续抱着生态系统和生物多样性至上的立场。也希望新 CAP (能通过的话)关于乡村发展和环境保护的提案能在这方面发挥作用。